Oceanography From Space Essays - Oceanography,

Oceanography From Space At first thought, studying the oceans from space seems to be a bizarre idea. Space observation helps oceanographers do research with manned and unmanned space systems. The space systems can be satellites and/or space shuttles that observe various features of the ocean such as sea-surface winds, sea-surface temperatures, waves, ocean currents, frontal regions, and sea color. Technological advances have greatly improved the ability of oceanographers to gather and use information that is received. Oceanography as viewed from space has and will become more and more valuable as we begin to understand more of the world's oceans. Projects Space oceanography uses a number of different sciences to research the oceans that include physics, geology, biology, chemistry, and engineering (Cracknell 13). This is evident in the projects that send satellites into space for observation of our oceans. In 1992, the Topex/Poseidon project was launched to observe the interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere (Cracknell 17). The Topex/Poseidon mission is to gather information about sea level heights and ocean currents (Cracknell 17). The Topex/Poseidon orbits above the earth at 840 miles and has a 10-day repeating cycle in which it takes pictures of all of the earth (Cracknell 17). Information about the how the sea level changes can tell scientists that there are changes in ocean currents and in climate patterns (Cracknell 25). This information is valuable to both oceanographers and meteorologists because it gives information about the phenomena, El Nino. Figure 1 is a picture of how the Topex/Poseidon works. Figure 1(NASA) The Topex/Poseidon receives information as to what it is supposed to do from a beacon on earth. The satellite then gathers the information it is supposed to gather and then sends it to the beacon on earth. The beacon on earth processes this information so that scientists can use it. As the Topex/Poseidon nears the end of observation new developments are being made to continue with similar work. Jason 1 is an observation satellite that will look at extending research about the interaction of oceans with the atmosphere, improving predictions about the climate, continue to monitor El Nino, and observe ocean eddies (Cracknell 26). These satellites are leading the way to a better understanding of our oceans as well as weather on planet earth. History Observations of oceanographic features with pictures were first realized with the invention of the camera (Pinet 181). Soon after the invention of the Camera, hot air balloons were used to take high altitude pictures of the land and sea, for mapping purposes (Pinet 181). In World War II, pilots took pictures of large areas of land that were used to develop strategies in the war (Pinet 181). At the beginning of the space age, just after World War II, rockets (although never in orbit) used movie cameras to photograph the surface (Pinet 182). The first manned shuttles took pictures of Earth and realized there were many observations of the oceans to be made (Pinet 182). Soon remote sensing came into action as satellites were sent into orbit (Pinet 182). Process of Remote Sensing Remote Sensing involves two types of instruments, passive and active (Gautier 58). Passive instruments detect natural energy that is reflected or emitted from the Sun (Gautier 59). Scientists use a variety of passive remote sensors such as a radiometer, imaging radiometer, and spectrometer. A radiometer measures the intensity of electromagnetic radiation in a band of wavelengths in the spectrum (Gautier 59). The spectrum is a measure of the visible, infrared (heat), and microwaves emitted from the Earth (Gautier 60). An imaging radiometer has the capability to scan an area and provide pixels of an area giving more detailed images of the surface than a radiometer (Gautier 60). A spectrometer detects, measures, and analyzes the wavelengths of the spectrum using prisms to separate the colors (Gautier 61). Active instruments provide electromagnetic radiation to observe an object (Gautier 69). Satellites that use active instruments send a pulse of energy towards the object being observed, then wait for the energy to be reflected (Gautier 69). This energy is then picked up as weaker or stronger in areas, which can define what features the satellite is looking at (Gautier 70). Some active instruments are radar, scatterometer, and lidar (Gautier 71). Radar uses radio or microwaves to emit electromagnetic radiation upon an object and record the time between when the energy leaves and comes back (Gautier71). A scatterometer uses microwaves the same way as radar, but it can measure wind speed and direction (Gautier71). Lidar uses lasers to transmit a light source on the object

The Story of the First Lawn Mower

The Story of the First Lawn Mower Formal lawns made of short, well-maintained grass first appeared in France around the 1700s, and the idea soon spread to England and the rest of the world. But the methods of maintaining lawns were labor-intensive, inefficient or inconsistent: Lawns were first kept clean and tidy by having animals graze on the grass, or by the use of scythe, sickle, or shears to hand-cut the grass lawns. That changed in the mid-19th century with the invention of the lawnmower.   Machine for Mowing Lawns The first patent for a mechanical lawn mower described as a Machine for mowing lawns, etc. was granted on August 31, 1830, to engineer, Edwin Beard Budding (1795-1846) from Stroud, Gloucestershire, England.  Buddings design was based on a cutting tool used for the uniform trimming of carpet. It was a reel-type mower that had a series of blades arranged around a cylinder. John Ferrabee, owner of Phoenix Foundry at Thrupp Mill, Stroud, first produced the Budding lawn mowers, which were sold to the Zoological Gardens in London (see illustration). In 1842,  Scotsman Alexander Shanks invented  a 27-inch pony drawn reel lawn mower. The first United States patent for a reel lawn mower was granted to Amariah Hills on January 12, 1868. Early lawn mowers were often designed to be horse-drawn, with the horses often wearing oversized leather booties to prevent lawn damage. In 1870, Elwood McGuire of Richmond, Indiana designed a very popular human pushed lawn mower; while it wasnt the first to be human-pushed, his design was very lightweight and became a commercial success. Steam-powered lawn mowers appeared in the 1890s. In 1902, Ransomes produced the first commercially available mower powered by an internal combustion gasoline engine. In the United States, gasoline powered lawn mowers were first manufactured in 1919 by Colonel Edwin George.   On May 9, 1899, John Albert Burr patented an improved rotary blade lawn mower. While marginal improvements have been made in mower technology (including the all-important riding mower), some municipalities and companies are bringing back the old ways by using grazing goats as a low-cost, low-emission mower alternative.

Depreciate vs. Deprecate

Depreciate vs. Deprecate Depreciate vs. Deprecate Depreciate vs. Deprecate By Maeve Maddox The words depreciate and deprecate are from different Latin originals, but the difference in meaning between them is being eroded in popular usage. Depreciate is from Latin depretiare, a combination de (from) and pretium (price). â€Å"To depreciate† is to become less in value. Example: â€Å"It’s often said that a car depreciates as it is driven off the dealer’s lot.† Depreciate is used transitively with the meaning, â€Å"to lower the value of.† Example: â€Å"The latest crisis depreciated the currency.† Figuratively, depreciate means, â€Å"to belittle or disparage.† For example, â€Å"No matter what I do, he depreciates my efforts.† Deprecate is from Latin deprecari, a combination of de (from, away) and precari (to pray). â€Å"To deprecate† something was to â€Å"pray it away.† The word entered English in the 17th century with the meaning, â€Å"to pray against evil, to pray for deliverance from.† For example, one might go to church to â€Å"deprecate God’s judgment,† that is, pray that it might be averted. Deprecate has the secular meanings â€Å"to plead earnestly against† and â€Å"to express earnest disapproval of.† For example, â€Å"We deprecate the harsh action taken against the local population.† Speakers do not always see a difference between depreciate (to belittle) and deprecate (to disapprove of). Because the distinction is a fine one, the words have become mixed up. As a plain verb, deprecate is not as common as it was in the 19th century, but its present participle form occurs in the popular adjective self-deprecating. As defined at the online Oxford Dictionaries site, self-deprecating means â€Å"modest about or critical of oneself, especially humorously so.† Here are two recent examples of the usage: The iconic comedian [Joan Rivers]  passed away today at 81, but she leaves behind a legacy of unrestricted humor and self-deprecating wisdom. â€Å"Humor is an amazing quality to have,† Kunis told  Glamour. I like sarcasm, satire, self-deprecating humor.† In researching this post, I found several depreciatory comments directed at speakers who write self-depreciating instead of self-deprecating. The sarcasm that accompanies some of these comments is misplaced. According to the Ngram Viewer, self-depreciating predates self-deprecating by 20 years. For about 100 years, beginning in 1845 and continuing until the 1940s, self-depreciating is the more common term; then, self-deprecating soars to its modern ascendency and self-depreciating plummets. Etymologically speaking, self-depreciating is the better choice, but self-deprecating has triumphed in standard speech; self-deprecating is the version to use if you don’t want to seem ignorant. Merriam-Webster, by the way, defines self-deprecating as â€Å"given to self-depreciation.† Computer science has found a new use for deprecate: deprecated (adjective): Used typically in reference to a computer language to mean a command or statement in the language that is going to be made invalid or obsolete in future versions. Examples of deprecated in the context of computer science: A program element annotated @Deprecated is one that programmers are discouraged from using, typically because it is dangerous, or because a better alternative exists. Compilers warn when a deprecated program element is used or overridden in non-deprecated code. Apple has officially deprecated Java, the cross-platform runtime environment developed by Sun and now owned by Oracle, and the company has decided not to include Adobe Flash technology on its new super-slim MacBook Air notebook computers. Bottom line: to deprecate is â€Å"to disapprove,† but in â€Å"self-deprecating,† it means, â€Å"to belittle.† In the world of computing, deprecated means â€Å"phased out† or â€Å"soon to be phased out.† Depreciate is for talking about loss of monetary value. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:10 Grammar Mistakes You Should Avoid8 Writing Tips for Beginners20 Slang Terms for Law Enforcement Personnel

Visual Arts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Visual Arts - Essay Example In this visual report, I would be comparing and contrasting 2 ancient vases to learn about them and get a better understanding of the same. The first piece of art is a ceramic amphora dating back to c. 540 BCE. This amphora was of Greek origin and had the painting of Dionysos with a pair of Maenads that was created by Amasis Painter. I chose to visualize and describe this particular vase because of its captivating contrast of colors of rich cream contrasted with black. The vase itself had a smooth fluidity in relation to its height and size which compelled me to use it as my visual art piece. The second piece of art that I had chosen to compare and contrast is a Korean Maebyeong Bottle that was decorated with a spray of bamboo in addition to a Plum tree in blossom. The reason for choosing this vase was because I liked the delicate painting which was done in a dull olive green which was so pretty and soothing to my eyes. The Greek amphora had a height of 13† (33.3cms) and was fr om the Bibliotheque National, Paris. The contour of the vase’s body was gorgeously decorated with the figures of the Greek God of Wine, Dionysos featured on the left sporting a beard and holding a wine glass in his hand, while the two Maenads, were to the right, and clad in 2 dark garments which were intricately detailed in presentation. One of the Maenads was seen holding a hare, while the other held a deer. On a closer look I also saw that each of them held a sprig of ivy between their fingers. The technique used here was contrasting dark figures against a light background. The pale green vase was created during the late 12th and early 13th century and belonged to the Goryeo dynasty. This art piece which I found quite attractive was basically an inlaid celadon ware which had a light background of grayish stoneware, that had an inlaid decoration of black and white slips, hidden under the celadon glaze. The technique which was formerly invented by the Chinese was used for thi s vase. This technique became a Korean specialty that enhanced the beauty of the vase to a great extent. This beautiful art piece had a height of 13† and a quarter (33.7cms) and is housed in the Tokyo National Museum in Tokyo, Japan. (The Arts of Korea, pg. 369) My analysis of the first vase which was a vessel used by the Greeks, was based on the decorative style which was bold as it was contrasting. I really liked the way the artist contrasted dark figures with a soft background. The spiral designs were aesthetically arranged so as to frame the composition and enable the viewer to focus on the figures in the center. I was also quite attracted to the border patterns of grape leaves both at the bottom and top of the vase which served to bring a uniqueness to this art piece, by making it all the more attractive. 3 My analysis of the second vase with the bamboo decoration was that it had the influence of Chinese ceramics because of its appearance. On closer scrutiny I found that the vase was embellished with inlaid decoration of both bamboo and plum blossoms which contrasted against each other thus making the design to stand out and be noticed. The contrasting came from an under-glaze design from slips of black and white that was made from clay which was ground finely. This seemed to be a special technique used by the potters which is what made this art piece so unique in its design. In the Greek vase, the element that kept recurring was the use of dark figures that was framed with circular designs and borders to offset the composition. In the Korean amphora, the recurring element that was made use of was the inlaying of dark and white strips that were glazed to give it a unique appearance. In comparison to each other, each of the vases had its own unique style of art

Evaluate leadership as practiced in the life of Jesus Christ in the Essay

Evaluate leadership as practiced in the life of Jesus Christ in the light of 21st century context - Essay Example The paper will touch on Jesus’ ministry and its application in modern church leadership. The analysis will draw its facts mainly from the Gospels. From the start of his ministry, Jesus set out to mentor leaders that would lead the early church. He selected twelve disciples with different skills, talents, passions and personalities and mentored them to become a team. He taught them to use their varied strengths in order to support each other in the ministry. Christ shaped a leadership structure with a leader who had others supporting him. By the time he ascended to Heaven, he had built a leadership structure comprising Peter as the Head and the other disciples supporting him in a united team that worked together. This team of early church leaders had a unity of purpose to spread the Gospel to all nations. They went out preaching and in their deeds complimented each other’s works. From this early structure, the modern church can draw lessons on how to structure its leadership to attain better results in ministering the Gospel. Traditionally, the church used the hierarchy model of leadership. However, with the growth of the church, there have been changes that have necessitated a shift to an empowered team model of leadership. Many leaders have found they overwhelmed and overworked under the hierarchy model. With the empowered team model, the problem is solved as the leaders work with others in a team. This model emphasizes mentorship of new leaders and the development of a team spirit among the leaders to enhance good working relations to boost delivery of the vision of the church. Empowerment means that leaders drop bureaucratic structures so that people develop a sense of ownership and belonging in the leadership process. It enables them put into use their skills, experiences, energies and ambitions. Active participation by the different members of the team will make them accept the responsibilities that come with the leadership (Maxwell, 2005, p.

What Influence The Media Have Over Education Policy Media Essay

What Influence The Media Have Over Education Policy Media Essay The media influences many areas of our lives sometimes without us even realizing that it is happening. Where else do we learn about the newest must have toy for Christmas, or the latest iphone. We see it and we immediately want it and cannot live without it. The same principal applies to the amount of influence media has over our schools and education policies. They shine a favorable light on someone who is running for the school board and instantly we think that person is the best candidate for the job. They do an investigative report on how money is being wasted at the expense of our kids and we are ready to march down to the administration building and demand they all resign. We grow up believing that everything we see and here in the media is the truth but the reality is that someone usually has an ax to grind and finds a way to get their view before the general public. This type of journalism has gotten so out of hand that Fox News uses the tagline fair and balanced in an effort to bring more views to their channel. I am left wondering why all channels and outlets are not reporting the news in a fair and balanced manner. There are two ways in which media, including the news media, popular culture, and entertainment sources, are commonly viewed as educational. In the first sense, people learn what to think and how to behave from media sources, viewing information on the news as matter of fact, or the characters on a televised sitcom as models for normal behavior, for example. Many find this view most compelling when considering medias impact on young children, whose understanding of the distinction between reality and fantasy is not set in stone. As an example, Schrag suggests that, lacking prior learning or experience with Middle Eastern culture, young children are bound to learn from Aladdin-a Walt Disney film marketed to young children that has sold tens of millions of copies-that Middle Eastern fruit sellers are commonly prone to violent rage upon discovering a single apple has been stolen from their cart. A similar view of media as unduly and directly influential to children was used in defense of twelve-year-old Lionel Tate, who was tried in 1991 for killing a six-year-old girl by body slamming her as he commonly observed contestants in World Federation of Wrestling do on television. (Jackson, 2010) The first policy is the right of freedom of speech. Public schools are the easiest to change though law and public policy when compared to parents, news media, campaigns, and communities. Schools can have a direct impact on students civic attitudes, knowledge, and habits. One of the most effective ways for them to teach citizenship is by promoting discussion of current issues, which is often based on items from the news media. There is even evidence that discussions of current issues in social studies classes can have indirect effects, enhancing family discussions of current events, which then increase both parents and students interest and knowledge. Educational programs that emphasize discussion of controversial issues have been found to increase students tolerance and use of the news media. By discussing these topics at school first then the student going home and talking about it to their parents it helps the student better understand the topic and the world around them. (Lopez, 2009) In 2005, the John S. and James L. Knight Foundation released results from a major survey of more than 112,000 high school students in more than 500 public and private schools that was taken in 2004. The survey was called the Future of the First Amendment (FOFA). It focused on habits and attitudes relevant to the First Amendment and especially freedom of the press. Students were asked factual questions about the First Amendment. Questions such as, Is it legal to burn the American flag as a protest? They were also asked opinion question, Does the press have too much freedom? and Should newspapers be allowed to publish freely without government approval? Finally, they were asked questions about their use of various news media and participation in school media activities. (Lopez, 2009) This research is very disturbing. It implies that schools are not doing their part to teach the students about what rights they do have. Recently some groups tried taking away our freedom of speech by telling us that when we say the Pledge of Allegiance it is wrong to say one nation under God. Freedom of speech should protect everyone and one group does not have the right to tell another that the words they choose to say are no longer allowed. Another area where the media has had a positive impact on school policy involves underage smoking. Movies and TV commonly show the stars of the film smoking. This is because smoking is still accepted in everyday life even though there are so many anti-smoking campaigns. Libertarianism toward smoking still permeates the society sufficiently to make smoking by film stars tolerable and normal, if not also attractive and desirable, as long as they are not literally advertising cigarettes to minors. Some audience members respond critically to media messages implying that smoking is socially acceptable, while others are more favorable. Yet the commonality of smoking by protagonists in mainstream film, nonetheless, reveals that, according to mainstream producers information, smoking is not considered to be beyond the bounds of social norms; it is regarded normally as an expected, largely acceptable, behavior that need not require a critical response or prohibition on the big screen. (McCart hy, 1998) Most of the policies that schools are trying to enact are for the good of the students. They want to make sure that the students are healthy and safe while they are on school property. Media campaigns have been used to modify individual behavior in many issues such as AIDS, tobacco use, breastfeeding, physical activity, and milk consumption. Ads are used in newspaper articles or letters to the editor in order to influence policy change. In 2006, North Carolina launched a campaign that used mass media campaign to influence policy change. It became the first state to create a statewide mass media campaign to promote the adoption of and compliance with tobacco-free policies in schools (TFS). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), as part of a comprehensive tobacco control program, calls for tobacco-free policies in schools to prevent youth tobacco use. (Summerlin-Long. S, 2009) The most effective tobacco-free policies that are enforced have shown there to be a significant reduction of youth tobacco use. These policies not only affect the students. It also affects school personnels use of tobacco and teaching of youth about tobacco. The most successful tobacco-free policy prohibits the use of tobacco products by anyone. No one is allowed to use tobacco on school grounds or at school events at any time. This includes school premises, school vehicles, and school events such as concerts and sporting events. At the time of the campaign launch, 78 of the 115 (67.8%) school districts in North Carolina had adopted comprehensive tobacco-free policies. The vast majority of these districts passed policies after school and community organizations funded by the North Carolina Health and Wellness Trust Fund (HWTF) specifically began to focus on this issue in 2003. As an innovative strategy for augmenting promotion of TFS policy adoption and compliance across the state, t he HWTF decided in 2005 to develop a statewide media campaign that would educate North Carolinians about TFS policies and encourage widespread support for such policies in local school districts. (Summerlin-Long. S, 2009) This was the first tobacco-free media campaign in the nation there and there was no evidence-based practice to base what ads worked best. Research was needed to help with the creation of the campaign aimed at changing policies. Researchers decided to speak with experts to learn more about messages to promote TFS policy. In February and March 2005, researchers conducted a total of 45 interviews with experts on TFS policy that were from within and outside North Carolina. The experts were from North Carolina and five other states. The people that were chosen for the interview were school district superintendents, Board of Education members, and school employees who included principals, teachers, and other staff. These people were chosen because they had the most power to influence policy and they were the adults most affected by local policy. There were twenty participants in twelve districts with TFS policies and in six districts without TFS policies participated in interviews. Two par ticipants were from organizations that worked across school districts. The research team also interviewed 9 state legislators to ensure the possibility of such a media campaign in a tobacco-growing state. The legislators included political parties, the Senate and the House, and a number of prominent members of the legislature who might wield influence on this issue. (Summerlin-Long. S, 2009) The survey tool asked interviewees about the best types of people to appear in ads. People were asked to think about which kinds of people would be most compelling in general.. They had to make the decision to decide whether a youth must appear in the personal testimonial of youth, and superintendents/school personnel would be best to relate the experiences of successful districts. They were also asked (1) what kinds of messages they believed would be most effective, (2) what kinds of messages might be seen as controversial, and (3) legislators comments on three of the most popular themes from the expert/stakeholder list. (Summerlin-Long. S, 2009) An ongoing problem in schools is bullying. In recent years the students are even bullied while they are on the internet away from the school setting. Schools are now using the media to help stop bullies and make sure that students are safe. Recent news in the national media about two students deaths as a result of harassment in school has highlighted a renewed desire for educators to address the culture of bullying and harassment in public schools, especially when the victims are targeted for their real or perceived differences. Some students are bullied and made fun of so much that they see the only way out is to commit suicide or leave the city that they are from. South Carolinas legislature responded to this need in June 2006 with the passage of the Safe School Climate Act. This statute was designed to limit and punish harassment, intimidation, or bullying among public school students, and it was required that school districts established policies to address this issue before Janu ary 1, 2007. However, failure to adequately implement the provision may provide an explanation as to why the Safe School Climate Act has failed to significantly change the culture of schools in South Carolina. South Carolinas legislative intentions provide a reference for similar legislation and policy changes nationwide. Current research shows that only quality staff development combined with ongoing, effective training in and education about any new policies will lead to its effective implementation. The complex causes of bullying and its impact on school culture continue to be debated by educational researchers, psychologists, and social theorists. (Terry, Blocking the Bullies: Has South Carolinas Safe School Climate Act Made Public Schools Safer?, 2010) Obviously legal remedies and punitive measures for bullies alone have not solved the problem. Will there ever be a time in history where students can be themselves and not worry about if someone is going to make fun of them or if they will ever be able to hang out with the cool kids? Hopefully through continued media attention to this problem changes will come about. Do you remember walking down the hallways in high school and suddenly having the security guard chase after you because they thought that your shorts where to short? By the time that I was a senior in high school is became a joke to us all. We learned that we could bend our arms a little bit and make it look like our shorts were long enough. In reality yes our shorts where to short but there was nothing that we could do about. My high school didnt have air conditioning so at times it got very hot and it was unbearable to wear pants. When we would go shopping for shorts they ones that would fit around our hips without falling off would be too short and it we bought them so that they were a little bit too big so the length was right then we would get into trouble because they would be falling off of us. It was such a dilemma. The dress code restriction didnt just stop on what length our shorts had to be. Students and teachers alike have always had restrictions on what is appropriate an d inappropriate dress. Virtually with no exception, schools have minimum dress codes in place: rules about what cannot be worn at school. Uniform policies state explicitly what must be worn in schools. (Gereluk, 2007) Halter-tops, tube-tops, one shoulder tops . . . muscle shirts, see-through or mesh tops (unless underneath a shirt) arent to be worn. Blouses, shirts or tops that reveal bare backs, midriffs, undergarments, or that have spaghetti straps or revealing necklines are not to be worn in Trents classes, hallways, class activities, or on field trips. (Raby, 2010) Does that sound familiar to you? I remember reading this in all my classes throughout my educational career. I always used to wonder why we had to have such a strict dress code. Now that I am older I have realized why. Dress code violations are distracting to others and they do not fit the desired image of a school, and disrespectful toward oneself and others. The details of dress codes do shift, however, as school administrators respond to trends in popular fashion. An example of this is reflected in rules banning midriff tops now making way for new concerns with girls reveal ­ing cleavage. Several American towns banning young me n from wearing low-slung pants that reveal their underwear. (Raby, 2010) Dress codes are not only for the students they are also for the staff in the school. Who wants to look at a teacher all day that is wearing sweat pants or a really low plunging neckline? I would be very angry. That is more distracting than if a student was wearing that outfit. In a 1901 document entitled Rules for Teachers, female educators were informed that they must wear at least two petticoats and that dresses must not be any shorter than two inches above the ankle. Male educators were informed that they shall wear a suit coat and suspenders. Additionally, teachers were admonished not to wear bright colors. (Kiracofe, 2010) As you can tell times have changed a lot. People do not dress like this anymore. Now modern school administers must decide if teachers are allowed to wear T-shirts with religious messages or other religious garb such as a turban or birkha. (Kiracofe, 2010) The question of whether or not media plays and helpful or harmful role in regards to the education system is not an easy on to answer. School safety has been improved following the events of past years that played out on every TV screen across America. They have reported on cyber bullying and the devastating consequences that such behavior can cause. Smoking has been banned from school property. On the other hand they have shown crazy games that have been being played among large groups of students. The latest one involves students on foot being chased by other students in cars. The object of the game is for the students on foot to make it to a predetermined location without getting caught. Shortly after this story was reported in the mainstream media there was an increase of traffic accidents due to even more students playing the game after hearing about it on the nightly news. The best we can hope for is that the good outweighs the bad and to try and teacher our children that just because the news anchor tells them something it doesnt necessarily mean that it is the truth etched in stone.

Commercial Life in Pompeii

Commercial Life in Pompeii and Herculaneum Historians have debated the nature of Pompeian economy – whether it was based on agriculture or trade. Some see the Roman empire in modern terms as one vast single market where demand drove up prices and productivity stimulated trade to a never before seen level (residue of pollution can be found in Greenland’s ice-cap and the many ship wrecks indicating the large volume of sea borne traffic).Other historians see Roman economy as ‘primitive’ based primarily on agriculture and the main aim of any community was to feed itself, with trade as the icing on the cake (based on the risky and costly sea travel, lack of banking system, social mores for respectability being against trade and laws forbidding senators and their sons from owning trade ships) (Beard pp. 152-3)[i]. More likely it was a combination of the two scenarios. Pompeii, unlike the quieter fishing/resort town of Herculaneum, can be seen to be a bustling com mercial centre, a town where making a profit and accumulating wealth was regarded as being favoured by the gods.This picture is based on evidence such as: * High number of privately owned shops, workshops, bars and inns, about 600 excavated * The markets around the Forum * The epigraphic (written) evidence of the guilds of tradesmen and retailers * The roughly 20 maritime warehouses & buildings lined with wine jars * Paintings of cargo boats on the Sarno River and porters carrying products to be loaded onto vessels * Trade signs advertise goods and services * Inscriptions on walls and floors on the benefits of making profit, eg. welcome gain† in the impluvium of the house of a carpenter * Images of Mercury, the God of commerce displayed The economies of Vesuvian towns were based on agricultural production (grain, grapes, olives and sheep) and fishing. The wealthiest families owned large houses in the city and also estates in the country side which were run and worked by fr eedmen and slaves . There were numerous medium-sized farms and villa rusticae as well as market gardens inside the walls of Pompeii occupying 10% of the town so far) that provided daily needs (wine, oil, cereals, fruit, vegetables, meat and wool). The fishing fleets of Herculaneum were large (based on the volume of fishing nets, hooks etc found) and supplied fresh seafood and the garum industry. These industries would’ve needed subsidiary industries too, such as pottery that was needed for the storage and export of products. From the evidence found in the Pompeii there were 50 occupations other than farming ii].There is a good argument to be made for the fact that Pompeii would’ve had enough surplus product for export – ancient writers associated the area with wine, as well as onions and cabbage. Also, numerous pottery jars have been found far from Pompeii, such as off the coast of Cannes (in France) stamped with the name Lasius an Oscan name with well-known mem bers of the family from Pompeii; wine jars stamped with the name Eumachus have been found in Carthage, Spain and France. Inside Pompeian houses jars have been found stamped with their origins (perhaps ready for distribution or sale) such as Spain, Crete and Rhodes.Microscopic analysis of containers in Pompeii has shown evidences of spices (such as pepper and cumin) as well as Egyptian glassware and Gallic bowls and pottery lamps (90 and 40 respectively still packed in their crates). Thus Beard reasons that â€Å"however small by comparison with the great trading centres of Puteoli or Rome, Pompeii’s port must’ve been a thriving, international and multilingual little place. † (Beard p. 162) Villa rustica in Boscoreale | Drawing of an olive press, for first pressing| Wine press, from Herculaneum| Wine and oil industries:Wine and oil were the main sources of income for people in the Vesuvian area, though only wealthy landowners could afford the outlay needed to set up and maintain these industries as the oil presses were costly and the long wait between planting and harvest. Large quantities of wine don’t appear to have been stored in bars or even inside the city, but brought in from the villas when needed which were stored large dolia â€Å"completely or partially buried in the ground thus protecting them from the weather† according to Pliny (Natural History 14). At the Villa of Pisanella at Boscoreale there was an nternal courtyard with 120 dolia that could hold up to 50,000 litres of wine which was transported in leather wineskins and decanted into amphorae for storage or serving in the thermopolia. Advertisements show there were a wide variety of types and vintages of wine on sale, Pliny said that Vesuvian wines were â€Å"injurious because of the hangover they cause, which persists until noon the following day. † The same estates also produced olive oil which was used for a variety of uses including cooking, lighting , washing and the production of perfume.Most of the pressing was done on estates in a two-step process – rubbing the olives to remove the skin and pips and then pressing them in the same press as used for wine to extract the oil. The manufacture of Garum:Pompeii was renowned for its garum, a fish sauce which was one of the main condiments used for flavouring Roman food. There were various types and qualities made from the guts and left overs of fish (such as red mullet, tuna, mackerel, sardines and anchovies) which was salted and left to ferment for a month.There is no evidence of equipment needed for production within the city itself, only dolia for distribution have been found (based on the small bones found at the bottom). The wealthiest families had a monopoly on the manufacture of garum and then sold it to street retailers or prepared it for export. | Garum jar in mosaic from the villa of Aulus Umbricius Scaurus, Pompeii, an ‘advertisement’ on the floor of h is atrium. | Cloth manufacture and treatment:Wool was the basis for one of the most important industries in Pompeii – the washing and dyeing of wool and the manufacture of cloth, as well as the laundering, bleaching and re-colouring of clothes. The raw wool was first degreased by boiling in leaden boilers, then once it was carded it was sent to spinners and weavers in private homes or shops and then it was coloured (often in bright colours such as purple and saffron) before distribution to cloth merchants. There have been 18 fullonicae (laundries) found in Pompeii and are identified by the series of interconnected basins or tanks with built in steps for washing and rinsing.Workers trod the cloth in a mixture of potash, carbonate of soda and urine (collected in jugs from the inhabitants of the town! ). Four fulleries were large and the rest have been found as part of private homes. The Fuller’s guild may have been a powerful organisation within the city. Fullery of Step hanus| Brushing the nap| Fullers standing in vats| An advertisement for the Fullonica of Stephani – cloth press| Fresco from the fullonica (fuller's shop) of Veranius Hypsaeus in Pompeii| Pistrina (Bakeries)There have been more than 30 pistrina found in Pompeii easily identified by their mills and ovens, some bakeries did the whole process from milling the grain whilst others prepared loaves from ready prepared flour. Lava stone mills were turned by donkeys and the flour collected at the bottom. The flour was then kneaded at a table, shaped into circles, scored into wedges and baked in a stone oven. In Herculaneum a baker known as Sextus Patulcus Felix appears have specialised in cakes as 25 bronze pans of various sizes from 10 to 25 cm diameter were found.In the Bakery of the Chaste Lovers there is a two roomed shop, a bakery with large oven (that had a large repaired crack, and smaller newer cracks), four mills (though only one was operational at the time of eruption) and a dining room (a very large triclunium). The remains of seven donkeys in their stables were found which suggests that bread was also delivered. The large number of animals (who were expensive to keep) also indicates that the owners of the bakery had intention of returning it to full operating output (Beard pp. 174-7).Bakery of Modesto, Pompeii, where 81 loaves were found still ‘baking’ in the oven! |   | Tabernae (Shops) Tabernae are usually translated as shops or workshops and they are found along main roads along the street front with wide open fronts that were part of insulae and integrated into the town rather than in ‘commercial zones’ as in modern town planning. Owners would live above the shop, called cenacula, accessed by stairs. An example is Insula Arriana Polliana – the white sections are an elite residence whilst the grey sections are shops (eg. 1-3 ;amp; 2-4), domus (eg. 7, 9 ;amp;10) and upper floor apartments (accessed at 18, 19, 6, 8 ;amp; 10a) available for rent. About 200 public eating and drinking places have been identified in Pompeii identified by their open fronts and the counters with dolia set into them. Though there was no ‘zoning’, there is a cluster of shops at three of the gates into the city (northern entrance of the Herculaneum Gate, to the south the Vesuvius ;amp; Stabian Gates) as well as on a 600m stretch of the Via dell’ Abbondanza.Shop and workshop owners advertised their businesses with painted signs or painting on the outside of walls. Inns and bars did continue service into the night with lamps as lighting but there is also the evidence of the wood shutters put in place for when shops did close. One of the largest tabernae found at Herculaneum opposite the Palestra had two entrances and had eight large jars set into the counter, other amphorae that may have been used for oil or sauce and a stove behind the counter that had terracotta casseroles warming over a charcoal f ire.One wine bar or tavern on Via dell’ Abbondanza in Pompeii was owned by a woman named Asellina who employed foreign waitresses named Zmyrina, Maria and Aegle (some believe they are prostitutes) has sums showing customers’ debts written on the insides of the walls of her inn and on the outside there are political slogans which may reveal her interest in politics or an ancient version of a slur campaign against a candidate. The walls of Pompeii’s inns also provide evidence for what activities occurred there, one painting shows customers seated below hanging hams and sausages, a sign reads â€Å"if you’re going to fight, get out! ; while the bill for one customer ambiguously lists the cost of a girl, bed and fodder for his mule (Butterworth ;amp; Laurence p. 280)[iii]. There were also hotels where visitors to Pompeii could rent a room, either close to the port or clustered around the northern and southern Gates. One building named Hotel of the Muses on t he banks of the Sarno River had a small jetty, 8 triclinia with brilliant frescoes and a large kitchen that is estimated could feed 50 guests. Other Industries:In Pompeii there is evidence of workshops of carpenters, plumbers, wheelwrights, tanners, tinkers, ironmongers, gold/ silver/bronze/coppersmiths, marble-workers, stonemasons, gem-cutters and glassmakers, tanneries, cobblers, painters and weavers. Many of these industries seem to have been conducted from a room in the home (based on finds of tools) or on the streets (based on paintings of street life). Metal working seems to have been big business in Pompeii as there is a profusion of metal implements all over the town.A few small workshops and retail outlets have been found, however only one forge has been uncovered so far, just outside the Vesuvian Gate. Historians also do not know where the raw materials came from. Pottery also must have been a large industry as so many activities required pottery vessels, though only two s mall potters’ premises (one of which was a specialist lamp maker) have been found within the walls. Perhaps the fire hazards of metal work and firing pottery meant that they had workshops outside the town.One luxury industry was perfume production – a combination of olive oil and flowers or spices. There are large gardens (for example the Garden of the Fugitives and the Garden of Hercules) that some historians believe to be for the growing of flowers for perfume and fragments of small terracotta and glass containers found there. Wall paintings in the House of the Vetti portray olives and flowers being pressed to extract the oil in wooden mills; another scene shows a woman seated with her feet on a cushion as sales assistants dab perfumes on her hand from a selection on display in a tiered cabinet. Butterworth ;amp; Laurence p. 272) Bronze oil lamp of the god Priapus, from Pompeii| Blue glassware from Pompeii| Replica oil lamp, Pompeii| Silver vessels from Pompeii| Word Bank: Forum, industries, main, foreign, noon, only, seafood, expensive, hazards, guests, open, tanks, olives, from, uncovered, street, god, eating, delivered, urine, room, full, traffic, easily, guts, Sarno, export, lamps, high, stone, slogans, plumbers, serving, in, economy, spices, cloth, two, lass, painted, lighting, advertising, slaves, one, packed, lived, bones, display, behind, flowers, boiling, hooks, gates, luxury, loaves, prices, feed, debts, trade, integrated, repaired, combination, estates, counters, sauce, donkeys, within, powerful, vegetables, month, far, large, sausages, farming, dolia, wealth, jars, harvest, purple, jars, business [i] Beard, Pompeii – Life of a Roman town London, Profile Books, 2008 [ii] Bradley Cities of Vesuvius – Pompeii and Herculaneum Cambridge Uni Press, Melbourne, 2006, Chapter 6 [iii] Butterworth ;amp; Laurence Pompeii – The Living City London, Orion Publishing Group, 2006