Gallic Wars Battle of Alesia and Julius Caesar

The Battle of Alesia was fought September-October 52 BC during the Gallic Wars (58-51 BC) and saw the defeat of Vercingetorix and his Gallic forces. Believed to have occurred around Mont Auxois, near Alise-Sainte-Reine, France, the battle saw Julius Caesar besiege the Gauls in the settlement of Alesia. The capital of the Mandubii, Alesia was situated upon heights which were surrounded by the Romans. In the course of the siege, Caesar defeated a Gallic relief army led by Commius and Vercassivellaunus while also preventing Vercingetorix from breaking out of Alesia. Trapped, the Gallic leader surrendered effectively ceding control of Gaul to Rome. Caesar in Gaul Arriving in Gaul in 58 BC, Julius Caesar began a series of campaigns to pacify the region and bring it under Roman control. Over the next four years he systematically defeated several Gallic tribes and gained nominal control over the area. In the winter of 54-53 BC, the  Carnutes, who lived between the Seine and Loire Rivers, killed the pro-Roman ruler  Tasgetius and rose in revolt.  Shortly thereafter, Caesar sent troops to the region in an attempt to eliminate the threat. These operations saw  Quintus Titurius Sabinus Fourteenth Legion destroyed when it was ambushed by  Ambiorix and Cativolcus of the Eburones. Inspired by this victory, the  Atuatuci and Nervii joined the rebellion and soon a Roman force led by Quintus Tullius Cicero was besieged in its camp.  Deprived of around a quarter of his troops, Caesar was unable to receive reinforcements from Rome due to the political intrigues caused by the collapse of the First Triumvirate. Fighting the Rebellion Slipping a messenger through the lines, Cicero was able to inform Caesar of his plight. Departing his base at  Samarobriva, Caesar marched hard with two legions and succeeded in rescuing his comrades men. His victory proved short-lived as the Senones and Treveri soon elected to rebel.  Raising two legions, Caesar was able to gain a third from Pompey. Now commanding ten legions, he quickly struck the Nervii and brought them to heel before shifting west and compelling the  Sernones and Carnutes to sue for peace (Map). Continuing this relentless campaign, Caesar re-subjugated each tribe before turning on the Eburones. This saw his men ravage their lands while his allies worked to annihilate the tribe. With the end of the campaign, Caesar removed all of the grain from the region to ensure that the survivors would starve.  Though defeated, the revolt had led to an upsurge in nationalism among the Gauls and the realization that the tribes must unite if they wished to defeat the Romans. The Gauls Unite This saw  Vercingetorix of the Averni work to draw the tribes together and begin to centralize power. In 52 BC, the Gallic leaders met at Bibracte and declared that Vercingetorix would lead the united Gallic army. Launching a wave of violence across Gaul, Roman soldiers, settlers, and merchants were killed in large numbers. Initially unaware of the violence, Caesar learned of it while in winter quarters in Cisalpine Gaul. Mobilizing his army, Caesar moved across the snow-covered Alps to strike at the Gauls. Gallic Victory and Retreat: Clearing the mountains, Caesar dispatched Titus Labienus north with four legions to attack the Senones and the Parisii. Caesar retained five legions and his allied Germanic cavalry for the pursuit of Vercingetorix. After winning a series of minor victories, Caesar was defeated by the Gauls at Gergovia when his men failed to execute his battle plan. This saw his men execute a direct assault against the town when he had desired them to conduct a false retreat to lure Vercingetorix off a nearby hill. Temporarily falling back, Caesar continued to attack the Gauls over the next few weeks through a series of cavalry raids. Not believing the time was right to risk battle with Caesar, Vercingetorix withdrew to the walled Mandubii town of Alesia (Map). Armies Commanders Rome Julius Caesar60,000 men Gauls VercingetorixCommiusVercassivellaunus80,000 men in Alesia100,000-250,000 men in relief army Besieging Alesia: Situated on a hill and surrounded by river valleys, Alesia offered a strong defensive position. Arriving with his army, Caesar declined to launch a frontal assault and instead decided to lay siege to the town. As the entirety of Vercingetorixs army was within the walls along with the towns population, Caesar expected the siege to be brief. To ensure that Alesia was fully cut off from aid, he ordered his men to construct and encircling set of fortifications known as a circumvallation. Featuring an elaborate set of walls, ditches, watchtowers, and traps, the circumvallation ran approximately eleven miles (Map). Trapping Vercingetorix Understanding Caesars intentions, Vercingetorix launched several cavalry attacks with the goal of preventing completion of the circumvallation. These were largely beaten off though a small force of Gallic cavalry was able to escape. The fortifications were completed in around three weeks. Concerned that the escaped cavalry would return with a relief army, Caesar began construction on a second set of works which faced out. Known as a contravallation, this thirteen-mile fortification was identical in design to the inner ring facing Alesia. Starvation Occupying the space between the walls, Caesar hoped to end the siege before aid could arrive. Within Alesia, conditions quickly deteriorated as food became scarce. Hoping to alleviate the crisis, the Mandubii sent out their women and children with the hope that Caesar would open his lines and allow them to leave. Such a breach would also allow for an attempt by the army to break out. Caesar refused and the women and children were left in limbo between his walls and those of the town. Lacking food, they began to starve further lowering the morale of the towns defenders. Relief Arrives In late September, Vercingetorix faced a crisis with supplies nearly exhausted and part of his army debating surrender. His cause was soon bolstered by the arrival of a relief army under the command of Commius and Vercassivellaunus. On September 30, Commius launched an assault on Caesars outer walls while Vercingetorix attacked from the inside. Both efforts were defeated as the Romans held. The next day the Gauls attacked again, this time under the cover of darkness. While Commius was able to breach the Roman lines, the gap was soon closed by cavalry led by Mark Antony and Gaius Trebonius. On the inside, Vercingetorix also attacked but the element of surprise was lost due to the need to fill in Roman trenches before moving forward. As a result, the assault was defeated. Final Battles Beaten in their early efforts, the Gauls planned a third strike for October 2 against a weak point in Caesars lines where natural obstacles had prevented construction of a continuous wall. Moving forward, 60,000 men led by Vercassivellaunus struck the weak point while Vercingetorix pressured the entire inner line. Issuing orders to simply hold the line, Caesar rode through his men to inspire them. Breaking through, Vercassivellaunus men pressed the Romans. Under extreme pressure on all fronts, Caesar shifted troops to deal with threats as they emerged. Dispatching Labienus cavalry to help seal the breach, Caesar led a number of counterattacks against Vercingetorixs troops along the inner wall. Though this area was holding, Labienus men were reaching a breaking point. Rallying thirteen cohorts (approx. 6,000 men), Caesar personally led them out of the Roman lines to attack the Gallic rear. Spurred on by their leaders personal bravery, Labienus men held as Caesar attacked. Caught between two forces, the Gauls soon broke and began fleeing. Pursued by the Romans, they were cut down in large numbers. With the relief army routed and his own men unable to break out, Vercingetorix surrendered the next day and presented his arms to the victorious Caesar. Aftermath As with most battle from this period, precise casualties around not known and many contemporary sources inflate the numbers for political purposes. With that in mind, Romans losses are believed to be around 12,800 killed and wounded, while the Gauls may have suffered up to 250,000 killed and wounded as well as 40,000 captured. The victory at Alesia effectively ended organized resistance to Roman rule in Gaul. A great personal success for Caesar, the Roman Senate declared twenty days of thanksgiving for the victory but refused him the a triumphal parade through Rome. As a result, political tensions in Rome continued to build which ultimately led to a civil war. This climaxed in Caesars favor at the Battle of Pharsalus.

2. Analyze the Ways in Which British Imperial Policies...

2. Analyze the ways in which British imperial policies between 1763 and 1776 intensified colonial resistance to British rule and their commitment to republican values. As generations grew up in America, nationalism within the colonies grew towards their new country. These settlers slowly lost their patriotic tie to Great Britain and it’s ruler, King George III. So when the French and Indian War ended in America, and the indebted England needed some compensation from American settlers in the form of taxes, the colonists questioned the authority of England and their ability to rule them. British imperial policies such as the Sugar Act of 1764 and the Townshend Tea Tax caused uproar within the colonies against British rule without†¦show more content†¦Protests in the streets against the British soldiers for this Townshend Tea Tax led to the first bloodshed early in the Revolution. The â€Å"Boston Massacre† was the killing of eleven citizens on the streets of Boston when a group of sixty colonists led by Crispus Attucks were protesting the new act. The news of this slaughter was spread throughout the colonies by the Commi ttees of Correspondence set up by a rich politician named Samuel Adams. These committees made it possible for information on everything resistance-related to reach all of the colonies in due time. In this way was news of the Boston Massacre spread across the United States which created outrage across the country. As tea was shipped to America under the new tea tax, rebellion stirred in Boston. Colonists disguised themselves and pillaged the trade ships, ruining millions of dollars worth of tea. In response to this, Parliament passed the ‘Intolerable Acts’ which outraged the colonists even further by closing the Boston ports, placing Massachusetts under royal authority, and allowing the Catholic French to settle along the Ohio River Valley under the new policies. Thus continued Parliament to colonist battle as the First Continental Congress met to discuss their rights as subjects under the king and announce the changes they wanted made in the Declaration of Rights which argued that the natural rights ofShow MoreRelatedStudy Guide for US History Essay3594 Words   |  15 Pagescreated a century of conflict in England? What factors finally pushed the English west, across the ocean? September 22, 2009 Describe the social, economic, and political changes which occurred in Europe and led to the exploration and colonization of the New World. September 23, 2009 Describe the process by which early Portuguese traders acquired slaves in West Africa. September 24, 2009 Explain how the economies and social structures of New England, the Chesapeake, and the middle colonies

Mechanistic Versus Organic Structures Free Essays

Mechanistic versus Organic Structures a. Mechanistic Structure is appropriate for organizations focusing on a cost- minimization strategy through tight control, extensive division of labor, high formalization and centralization. The information network is limited and employees rarely participate in decision making process. We will write a custom essay sample on Mechanistic Versus Organic Structures or any similar topic only for you Order Now b. Organic Structure is decentralized and has low complexity and formalization. It has an extensive information system, and employees rarely participate in decision making. It tends to be flexible and adaptive. c. Structure in function of the organization’s fundamental strategy. ) Innovation Strategy focuses on developing important new product or services. An organic structure provides the flexibility for this strategy. 2) Cost-minimization Strategy imposes tight controls over expenses and reduces product prices. The mechanistic structure is appropriate. 3) Imitation strategies are not adopted by true innovators but rather by organizations that move into new markets after smaller competitors have demonstrated the potential for success. Limitation best suited to a structure that combines mechanistic and organic. d. Structure is also a function of 1) Size. Larger organizations tend to be mechanistic because greater formalization is needed. Strategies also change as sizes changes. Growing organizations often expand activities within their industry. 2) Technology. An organic structure may be best for coping with non-routine technology because formalization is low. 3) Environment. In general, the more stable the environment, the more mechanistic the organization. A mechanistic structure is appropriate when the environment has little capacity for growth. Dynamic environments require an organic structure because of their unpredictability. Moreover, a complex environment also requires the flexibility and adaptability of an organic structure. a) The environment has three key dimensions: i) Capacity is the degree of growth an environment can support. ii) Volatility concerns the relative instability in the environment. iii) Complexity is the amount of heterogeneity and concentration in the environment. Thus, an industry with few very large firms is homogeneous and concentrated. b) Uncertainty not a specific environmental factor. The foregoing factors determine the level of uncertainty present in the environment. 11. According to Henry Mintzberg, an organization has five components. Depending on which is in control, one of five different structure involve. a. The five organizational components include the 1) Operating core- workers who perform the basic tasks related to production 2) Strategic apex- top managers 3) Middle line- managers who connect the core to the apex 4) Technostructure- analyst who achieve a certain standardization 5) Support staff- indirect support services b. The five structures include the following: 1) Simple structure (apex) has low complexity and formality and authority is centralized. Its small size and simplicity usually precludes significant inefficiency in use of resources. 2) Machine bureaucracy (technostructure) is a complex, formal and centralized organization that performs highly routine tasks, groups’ activities into functional departments, has relationships. 3) Professional bureaucracy (operating core) is a complex and formal but centralized organization in which highly trained specialist have great autonomy. 4) Divisional structure (middle line) is essentially a self-contained organization. It is characterized by substantial duplication of functions compared with more centralized structures. 5) Adhocracy (support staff) has low complexity, formality and centralization. Vertical differentiation is low and horizontal differentiation is high. 12. Centralization and Decentralization a) Centralization concerns the centralization of authority in an organization and the degree and levels at which it occurs. b) Decentralization is a philosophy of organizing and managing. Careful selection of which decisions to push down the hierarchy and which to hold at the top is required. The degree of decentralization will be greater if 1) More decision are made lower in the management hierarchy. 2) Some important decisions are made lower in the management hierarchy. 3) More functions are affected by decisions made at lower levels. 4) Fewer approvals are required before implementation of a decision. c) Centralization and decentralization are relative terms. Absolute centralization or decentralization is impossible. d) The degree of centralization or decentralization depends upon the situation. 1) Information. Decisions cannot be decentralized to those who do not have necessary information. ) Ability. Decisions cannot be decentralized to people who do not have training, experience, knowledge or ability to make decisions. 3) Timeliness. The organization should decentralize decisions requiring a quick response to those near the action. 4) Degree of coordination. The organization cannot decentralize below the level at which coordination must be maintained. 5) Significanc e of decision. Decisions cannot be centralized to lower levels if they are of critical importance to the organization. 6) Morale. The organization should decentralize, when possible, for the positive influence on morale. How to cite Mechanistic Versus Organic Structures, Essay examples